Mar '25 • ❓ Ask & Apply
100 Fallacies with 100 examples
Here’s a concise list of 100 logical fallacies, each with a one-sentence definition and a real-world example you might encounter.
WARNING
Many fallacies are known by more than one name.
Most fallacies may not be fallacies based on the context. In some contexts they may be completely appropriate.
The examples used are for illustrative purposes and do not necessarily reflect my opinion.
1. Ad Hominem
Definition: Attacking the person instead of their argument.
Example: "You can’t trust his climate change report because he’s a vegan."
2. Straw Man
Definition: Misrepresenting someone’s argument to easily refute it.
Example: "You support welfare? So you want everyone to live off government handouts?"
3. False Dilemma
Definition: Presenting only two options when more exist.
Example: "Either we ban all guns, or crime will skyrocket."
4. Appeal to Authority
Definition: Using an authority figure as evidence, even if irrelevant.
Example: "A famous actor says this diet works, so it must be true."
5. Slippery Slope
Definition: Arguing that a small step will inevitably lead to extreme outcomes.
Example: "If we allow students to redo tests, soon nobody will study at all."
6. Circular Reasoning
Definition: Restating the premise as the conclusion.
Example: "The Bible is true because it says so."
7. Hasty Generalization
Definition: Drawing a broad conclusion from a small sample.
Example: "My Uber driver was rude, so all Uber drivers are rude."
8. Post Hoc (False Cause)
Definition: Assuming correlation implies causation.
Example: "I wore my lucky socks and won the game, so the socks caused the win."
9. Red Herring
Definition: Introducing an irrelevant topic to distract.
Example: "Why worry about pollution when aliens could invade tomorrow?"
10. Appeal to Emotion
Definition: Using emotions (fear, pity) instead of logic.
Example: "If you don’t donate, these puppies will die!"
11. No True Scotsman
Definition: Redefining a group to exclude counterexamples.
Example: "No real Christian would support gay marriage."
12. Begging the Question
Definition: Assuming the conclusion within the premise.
Example: "Ghosts exist because I saw a ghost."
13. False Equivalence
Definition: Treating two unequal things as equal.
Example: "Calling someone a racist is just as bad as racism itself."
14. Appeal to Nature
Definition: Claiming something is good because it’s "natural."
Example: "This chemical-free shampoo is better because nature knows best."
15. Tu Quoque (Hypocrisy Fallacy)
Definition: Dismissing criticism because the critic is also guilty.
Example: "You say I shouldn’t speed, but you speed too!"
16. Genetic Fallacy
Definition: Judging something based on its origin, not merit.
Example: "That idea came from a capitalist, so it must be bad."
17. Bandwagon Fallacy
Definition: Arguing something is true because many believe it.
Example: "Everyone’s buying this stock, so you should too."
18. Anecdotal Fallacy
Definition: Using personal stories instead of evidence.
Example: "My grandma smoked daily and lived to 100, so smoking isn’t harmful."
19. Texas Sharpshooter
Definition: Cherry-picking data to fit a pattern.
Example: "This pill works—look at these five success stories (ignoring 100 failures)."
20. Loaded Question
Definition: A question with a built-in assumption.
Example: "Have you stopped cheating on tests?" (Assumes you did cheat.)
21. Appeal to Tradition
Definition: Claiming something is better because it’s been done for a long time.
Example: "You can't celebrate Christmas without a tree."
22. Appeal to Novelty
Definition: Assuming something is better just because it’s new.
Example: "This app uses AI, so it’s obviously superior to the old version."
23. Middle Ground Fallacy
Definition: Assuming the truth must be halfway between two extremes.
Example: "One scientist says disease X is deadly, another says it’s harmless—so it’s probably mildly dangerous."
24. Equivocation
Definition: Using a word with multiple meanings to mislead.
Example: "The law says ‘no vehicles in the park,’ so wheelchairs should be banned (since they’re ‘vehicles’)."
25. Composition Fallacy
Definition: Assuming what’s true for the parts must be true for the whole.
Example: "Each brick is lightweight, so the entire wall must be lightweight."
26. Division Fallacy
Definition: Assuming what’s true for the whole must be true for the parts.
Example: "This car is expensive, so every part of it must be expensive."
27. False Analogy
Definition: Comparing two things that aren’t truly alike.
Example: "Employees are like nails—you have to hit them hard to get them to work."
28. Non Sequitur
Definition: A conclusion that doesn’t logically follow the premise.
Example: "She’s a great artist, so she’d make a great CEO."
29. Cherry Picking
Definition: Only presenting evidence that supports your side.
Example: "Global warming isn’t real—it snowed last winter!"
30. Moving the Goalposts
Definition: Changing the criteria to avoid losing an argument.
Example: "You proved the Earth is round? Well, show me photos from space without CGI!"
31. Personal Incredulity
Definition: Dismissing something because you can’t understand it.
Example: "I can’t imagine how evolution works, so it must be false."
32. Burden of Proof Reversal
Definition: Shifting the obligation to disprove a claim onto others.
Example: "Prove that ghosts don’t exist!"
33. Apex Fallacy
Definition: Judging a group by its most extreme members.
Example: "Feminists want to ban all men—look at this viral tweet!"
34. Nirvana Fallacy
Definition: Rejecting a solution because it’s not perfect.
Example: "Renewable energy won’t solve climate change completely, so why bother?"
35. False Balance
Definition: Giving equal weight to unequal evidence.
Example: "Some studies link smoking to cancer, but tobacco companies say more research is needed—so the jury’s still out."
36. Inflation of Conflict
Definition: Assuming experts disagree means the truth is unknowable.
Example: "Scientists debate flat Earth, so it’s not settled."
37. Continuum Fallacy
Definition: Rejecting a distinction because it’s not a sharp line.
Example: "You can’t call anyone ‘tall’—where do you draw the line?"
38. Suppressed Correlative
Definition: Redefining a term to make comparisons meaningless.
Example: "No true democracy has poverty, so the Canada isn’t a democracy."
39. Package Deal Fallacy
Definition: Assuming traits must always go together.
Example: "If you’re religious, you must oppose gay rights."
40. Appeal to Coercion
Definition: Using threats instead of reasoning.
Example: "Agree with me, or I’ll fire you."
41. Appeal to Pity (Ad Misericordiam)
Definition: Using emotion (usually sympathy) to win an argument instead of evidence.
Example: "I deserve an A because my dog died the night before the exam."
42. Appeal to Ignorance
Definition: Claiming something is true because it hasn’t been disproven.
Example: "No one can prove aliens don’t exist, so they must be real."
43. Appeal to Heaven
Definition: Asserting God’s will as justification for a claim.
Example: "This war is just because God is on our side."
44. Appeal to Consequences
Definition: Arguing a belief is true or false based on its outcomes.
Example: "If humans evolved from apes, life would have no meaning—so evolution is false."
45. Appeal to Popularity (Ad Populum)
Definition: Claiming something is true because many people believe it.
Example: "Millions use this app, so it must be the best."
46. Appeal to Force (Ad Baculum)
Definition: Using threats to force agreement.
Example: "Agree with my policy, or you’ll lose your job."
47. Appeal to Spite
Definition: Dismissing an idea to spite an opponent.
Example: "I’ll never support your proposal because I hate your team."
48. Appeal to Ridicule
Definition: Mocking an argument instead of addressing it.
Example: "You think we should tax the rich? Ha! Next you’ll say unicorns pay taxes too!"
49. Appeal to Loyalty
Definition: Using group allegiance to justify a claim.
Example: "Real Americans don’t question the president."
50. Appeal to Authority of One
Definition: Citing a single unqualified "expert" as proof.
Example: "My yoga instructor says bigfoot exists, so it must be true."
51. Chronological Snobbery
Definition: Dismissing ideas because they’re old or new.
Example: "Aristotle’s philosophy is outdated—we know better now!"
52. Moralistic Fallacy
Definition: Assuming reality aligns with moral beliefs.
Example: "War is evil, so humans must not be naturally violent."
53. Naturalistic Fallacy
Definition: Confusing "is" with "ought" (descriptive with prescriptive).
Example: "Men are stronger, so they should dominate women."
54. Gambler’s Fallacy
Definition: Believing past random events affect future odds.
Example: "The roulette wheel landed on red 5 times—black is ‘due’ next!"
55. Regression Fallacy
Definition: Attributing a statistical fluctuation to a cause.
Example: "My headache improved after taking a sugar pill—the pill worked!"
56. Mind Projection Fallacy
Definition: Assuming your subjective view reflects reality.
Example: "I don’t understand quantum physics, so it must be nonsense."
57. Base Rate Neglect
Definition: Ignoring statistical prevalence for anecdotal evidence.
Example: "My friend smoked for 50 years and lived to 90, so smoking is safe."
58. Conjunction Fallacy
Definition: Assuming specific conditions are more likely than general ones.
Example: "Linda is a bank teller and a feminist" seems more likely than "Linda is a bank teller."
59. Hot Hand Fallacy
Definition: Believing a streak of success will continue.
Example: "This basketball player made 3 shots in a row—he’s ‘on fire’!"
60. Plan Continuation Bias
Definition: Sticking to a failing plan despite evidence.
Example: "We’ve already invested $1M in this project—we can’t quit now!"
61. False Attribution
Definition: Citing incorrect or fabricated sources to support a claim.
Example: "Einstein said aliens built the pyramids" (he never said this).
62. Bulverism
Definition: Assuming why someone holds a view instead of addressing the view itself.
Example: "You only support tax cuts because you're rich."
63. Phantom Distinction
Definition: Pretending two identical things are different.
Example: "Our 'premium' water is different from regular water" (it's the same).
64. Inflationary Hypothesis
Definition: Unnecessarily complex explanations for simple phenomena.
Example: "Your headache isn't from dehydration - it's a mercury retrograde effect."
65. Ludic Fallacy
Definition: Applying game rules to real-world complexity.
Example: "The stock market should behave like my blackjack strategy."
66. McNamara Fallacy
Definition: Over-relying on quantifiable data while ignoring intangibles.
Example: "We only measure test scores, so student creativity doesn't matter."
67. Fallacy of Relative Privation
Definition: Dismissing an issue because "worse problems exist."
Example: "Why care about local pollution when world hunger exists?"
68. Spotlight Fallacy
Definition: Assuming media coverage reflects reality.
Example: "Plane crashes must be increasing - I've seen three news reports this month."
69. Historian's Fallacy
Definition: Judging past decisions by present knowledge.
Example: "Medieval doctors were stupid for not using antibiotics."
70. Psychologist's Fallacy
Definition: Assuming others think/feel as you do.
Example: "I find this painting beautiful, so everyone must agree."
71. Anthropomorphic Fallacy
Definition: Attributing human traits to non-human things.
Example: "My dog looks guilty, so he knows he did wrong."
72. Nominal Fallacy
Definition: Thinking naming something explains it.
Example: "He has ADHD because he's hyperactive" (circular reasoning).
73. Reification Fallacy
Definition: Treating abstractions as concrete realities.
Example: "The market wants higher interest rates" (markets can't "want").
74. Ecological Fallacy
Definition: Assuming group traits apply to individuals.
Example: "People from Country X are tall, so John from Country X must be tall."
75. Exception Fallacy
Definition: Generalizing from atypical examples.
Example: "Bill Gates dropped out of college and succeeded, so college is worthless."
76. Masked Man Fallacy
Definition: Confusing names/descriptions with identity.
Example: "I know my father, but I don't know the bank robber - therefore my father isn't the bank robber."
77. Quantifier Shift
Definition: Illegitimately reversing logical quantifiers.
Example: "Every action has some purpose, therefore some purpose governs all actions."
78. Modal Fallacy
Definition: Confusing possibility with necessity.
Example: "You can win the lottery, therefore you will win the lottery."
79. Moral Licensing
Definition: Using past good deeds to justify current bad behavior.
Example: "I donated to charity, so I can cheat on my diet today."
80. Fallacy of Four Terms
Definition: Syllogisms with four (instead of three) terms creating ambiguity.
Example: "All birds fly. Penguins are birds. Therefore, all leaders fly." (illogical leap).
81. Broken Window Fallacy
Definition: Assuming destruction stimulates economic growth.
Example: "Hurricanes are good because they create construction jobs."
82. Cobra Effect
Definition: Solutions worsening the problem they aim to solve.
Example: "Offering bounties for dead rats led people to breed more rats for cash."
83. Proving Non-Existence
Definition: Demanding proof of absence as evidence.
Example: "Prove Bigfoot doesn’t exist!"
84. Fallacy of the Undistributed Middle
Definition: Assuming two things are identical because they share one trait.
Example: "All birds fly. Bats fly. Therefore, bats are birds."
85. Kettle Logic
Definition: Using contradictory arguments to defend a position.
Example: "I never borrowed your kettle, it was already broken, and it worked fine when I returned it!"
86. Apriorism
Definition: Asserting something must be true without empirical evidence.
Example: "The human soul weighs 21 grams because a 1907 study claimed so."
87. Vacuous Truth
Definition: Technically true but meaningless statements.
Example: "If the moon is made of cheese, then I’m the Pope."
88. Fallacy of the Single Cause
Definition: Oversimplifying complex events to one factor.
Example: "The Roman Empire fell only because of lead pipes."
89. Retrospective Determinism
Definition: Viewing past events as inevitable.
Example: "The 2008 financial crisis was bound to happen."
90. Escalation of Commitment
Definition: Continuing a failing endeavor due to prior investment.
Example: "We’ve spent $2M on this failing project—we can’t stop now!"
91. Argument by Poetic Language
Definition: Using eloquent phrasing to mask weak logic.
Example: "Like a fragile blossom in the storm of life, my policy will save us all."
92. Fallacy of the Beard
Definition: Rejecting distinctions because boundaries are fuzzy.
Example: "When does a pile of sand stop being a pile? Therefore, piles don’t exist."
93. Self-Exclusion Fallacy
Definition: Excluding oneself from generalizations.
Example: "Nobody should trust social media... (posts this on Twitter)."
94. Argument by Emotive Language
Definition: Using loaded words to provoke reactions.
Example: "Only a heartless monster would oppose this healthcare bill."
95. Fallacy of the General Rule
Definition: Applying broad rules to all exceptions.
Example: "Medication should avoid side effects. Chemo has side effects, so it’s bad medicine."
96. Category Mistake
Definition: Treating something as part of the wrong category.
Example: "The ‘average family’ has 2.5 children." (Can’t have half a child.)
97. Fallacy of Misplaced Concreteness
Definition: Treating abstract concepts as physical realities.
Example: "Her depression is a dark cloud following her." (Literalizing a metaphor.)
98. Argument by Slogan
Definition: Replacing reasoning with catchy phrases.
Example: "Think different!" (Used to justify poor business decisions.)
99. Fallacy of Accident
Definition: Applying general rules to atypical cases.
Example: "Cutting people is illegal. Surgeons cut people. Therefore, surgeons are criminals."
100. Fallacy of the Golden Mean
Definition: Assuming compromise is always correct.
Example: "One scientist says Earth is flat, another says it’s round—so it’s probably a disc."
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100 Fallacies with 100 examples
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